Seminole

The Seminole War of 1816 and 1817 – Indian Wars

colonel clinch

In the aftermath of the War of 1812, British agents Edward Nicholls and James Woodbine rallied Indigenous and Black groups in Florida to challenge U.S. expansion. They fortified a stronghold that Colonel Clinch besieged, resulting in the fort’s destruction and a significant enemy casualty count. Following further conflicts and the rise of General Jackson, who captured key territories, the U.S. ultimately took control of Florida in 1819, resolving lingering tensions with Spain and concluding the Seminole War for the time being.

Guide to Using the Final Rolls

Frank T. Swift Enrollment Card

This guide provides instructions for searching the Final Rolls, or Dawes Rolls, to find information about enrollees including name, age, sex, and blood degree. It includes a letter guide from the National Archives denoting various statuses such as adopted, doubtful, or rejected. Successful searches depend on careful reading and understanding of the enrollment cards, as demonstrated through example searches. Accessing census card numbers can reveal additional family details and clarify previously marked statuses, enhancing the effectiveness of research into ancestral ties.

Seminole Burial Customs

The Seminole burial customs reflect their cultural practices and beliefs, largely unchanged due to their isolation in Florida’s swamps. When a child died, a new shirt and head coverings were used to prepare the body, which was then laid in a grave called To-hop-ki, facing east. Mourning rituals included fire at the grave for protection and torches waved to guard against evil spirits. After four days, mourning ceased. Another practice involved burying bodies in hollow trees, though less commonly documented.

Dawes Act

The Dawes Act, also known as the General Allotment Act, implemented in 1887, aimed to allot tribal lands to individual Native Americans in order to promote agriculture and integrate them into American society. Each head of a family could receive a quarter section of land, while single individuals and orphaned children received smaller allotments. The act allowed for the federal government to manage the land in trust for 25 years, after which land ownership would be transferred to the individual. However, significant limitations were imposed on tribes, and it excluded certain groups, ultimately leading to the loss of millions of acres of tribal land.

Acts of a Supplemental Character

The acts of March 5, 1905, and April 26, 1906, aimed to supplement enrollment for the Five Civilized Tribes but were flawed. The first act restricted applications to children of already enrolled citizens, creating an inequitable divide. The second act imposed an unfeasible deadline for completing enrollment, exacerbating the situation. Errors in interpreting eligibility, especially for Mississippi Choctaw and freedmen children, led to significant disenfranchisement. Additionally, provisions unfairly favored certain applicants, highlighting systemic injustices in the enrollment process that continued to affect many displaced individuals.

Mikasuki Indians

The Mikasuki Indians, part of the Hitchiti-speaking branch of the Muskhogean family, are thought to have originated from either the Hitchiti or Chiaha tribes. Their early settlements were near Miccosukee Lake in Florida, where they established independent status by 1778. Dividing into several villages, they faced conflicts, notably during the Seminole War. Although Andrew Jackson burned Old Mikasuki in 1817, a distinct Mikasuki community remains in Florida, known as the Big Cypress band, while others migrated to Oklahoma.

Treaty of January 4, 1845

The treaty of January 4, 1845, facilitated a formal agreement between the United States, the Creek, and Seminole tribes. It aimed to resolve disputes regarding land and governance, ensuring that the Seminoles could either integrate into the Creek nation or settle independently, while clarifying property rights. The treaty also addressed grievances related to previous treaties, offering financial support for education and aid for relocating Seminoles. Furthermore, it established boundaries to prevent encroachment and foster peaceful coexistence between the tribes.

Treaty of March 28, 1833

On March 28, 1833, the United States formalized land arrangements with the Seminole Indians following their initial agreement in May 1832. The Seminoles agreed to relinquish their Florida territory and emigrate to land designated among the Creeks west of the Mississippi River. Satisfied with the designated land after examination, Seminole chiefs expressed their acceptance and readiness to relocate, recommending Major Phagan to oversee their emigration. The treaty underscores the U.S. government’s commitment to facilitating the Seminoles’ transition to their new homeland.

Treaty of March 21, 1866

On March 21, 1866, the United States and the Seminole Nation entered a treaty aimed at restoring relations after the Seminoles’ alignment with the Confederacy during the Civil War. The treaty established a commitment to peace and defined terms for land cessions, compensation, and the abolition of slavery within the tribe. The agreement included provisions for aid in rebuilding agricultural independence, establishing a general council for governance, and reaffirming obligations from earlier treaties. It sought to ensure the rights and safety of the Seminoles while addressing the consequences of their past actions.

Treaty of May 9, 1832

On May 9, 1832, the Seminole Indians agreed to a treaty with the United States, facilitated by Commissioner James Gadsden, which stipulated their removal from Florida to Creek territory west of the Mississippi. In return, they relinquished their land claims and would receive compensation of $15,400 and other provisions like blankets and support for a blacksmith. The United States also pledged to investigate claims regarding property losses and to cover their removal expenses, with the emigration commencing in 1833.

Agreement of September 13, 1865

On September 13, 1865, representatives of various Indian tribes, including the Cherokees, Creeks, and Seminoles, entered into an agreement with U.S. commissioners, affirming their allegiance to the United States after previously aligning with the Confederate States. This agreement emphasized the tribes’ recognition of U.S. jurisdiction and the cancellation of any prior treaties made with Confederate forces. The U.S. promised to restore peace and protect the tribes, marking the beginning of efforts to re-establish relations and resolve past treaty disputes.

Treaty of September 18, 1823

The Treaty of September 18, 1823, facilitated the cession of Florida territory by native chiefs in exchange for U.S. protection and support. The agreement established boundaries for tribal habitation, promising agricultural aid, monetary support for 20 years, food provisions, and educational resources. Special reservations were designated for particular chiefs, ensuring their peaceful possession while stipulating their cooperation in maintaining order. Additionally, measures were included to compensate for relocation and improvements abandoned by tribes. This treaty exemplifies the complexities of U.S. relations with Native American tribes during this period.

Biography of Mikanopy

Mikanopy was a Seminole chief who opposed the forced removal of his people from their lands as outlined in a treaty signed on May 9, 1832. He refused to sign the emigration agreement in 1835, aligning with Osceola and the majority of the tribe who sought to resist relocation. As tensions escalated into conflict, Mikanopy’s leadership was challenged, leading to a prolonged war with the U.S. government. Despite his involvement in battles, including the killing of a commanding officer in 1836, he was noted for his indolent nature and lack of strong leadership qualities.

Biography of Osceola

Osceola, born around 1803 near the Tallapoosa River, was a prominent Seminole leader recognized for his military prowess during the Seminole War against the United States. His leadership emerged not from formal election but from his skills as a warrior. He strategically protected his people by hiding them in swamps while actively resisting U.S. forces. Captured under a flag of truce by Gen. Jesup in 1837, Osceola died in captivity in January 1838, remembered for his resilience and tragic betrayal.

Biographical Sketch of Chief Bowlegs

Bowlegs, likely a corruption of Bolek, was a Seminole chief who gained brief prominence during the 1812 Indian War in Georgia. He allied with King Paine, leading a group of Seminole and Black individuals in raids against settlers. After engaging in a confrontation with Capt. Williams, they faced significant military opposition from Gen. Neuman. Following the defeat, where King Paine was killed and Bowlegs wounded, he faded from historical records, although he likely lived for several more years. His name appears as Boleck in legal documents of the time.

Billy Bowlegs and His Raid on Dr. Braden’s Farm

Billy Bowlegs, a Seminole chief known for his raids in Florida, impacted the lives of those connected to Dr. Braden’s plantation. During one nighttime raid, Bowlegs, along with his men, attacked the Braden household but was repelled, sustaining serious injury. They managed to capture horses and enslaved people, including members of Lucinda Lawson’s family. Although a military pursuit ensued, the stolen captives were ultimately rescued. This raid prompted Dr. Braden’s relocation to Georgia, and later, his widow settled in Fort Bend County, Texas, influenced by these events.

Biographical Sketch of Hornotlimed

Hornotlimed was a Seminole chief notable for his role in the Seminole War of 1817-18. Initially based in Fowl Town, he fled to Mikasuki during the conflict. On November 30, 1817, he ambushed Lieutenant Scott’s party, resulting in the deaths of most soldiers and the capture of others, who were subsequently killed and scalped. The scalps were displayed in Mikasuki as triumphs. He was later captured by American troops and hanged, earning the nickname Homattlemico, meaning “the old Red-stick.

Treaty of August 7, 1856

The Treaty of August 7, 1856, establishes a framework for the relations between the United States and the Creek and Seminole Tribes, promoting the emigration of Seminoles from Florida to lands west of the Mississippi River. It outlines boundaries, assurances of land rights, and provisions for education and support for both tribes. The treaty also includes agreements on mutual governance, protection from external threats, and the settlement of claims. This comprehensive instrument seeks to unify the tribes and secure their welfare in a shared territory.