History

The Insurrection

New Orleans, in 1768, was still a town of some thirty-two hundred persons only, a third of whom were black slaves. It had lain for thirty-five years in the reeds and willows with scarcely a notable change to relieve the poverty of its aspect. During the Indian wars barracks had risen on either side of the Place d’Armes. When, in 1758, the French evacuated Fort Duquesne and floated down the Ohio and Mississippi to New Orleans, Kerlerec added other barracks, part of whose ruin still stands in the neighborhood of Barracks Street. Salients had been made at the corners of … Read more

The End of The Pirates

New Orleans emerged from the smoke of battle rather the tardy news of peace, which had been sealed at Ghent more than a fortnight before the battle. With peace came open ports. The highways of commercial greatness crossed each other in the custom-house, not behind it as in Spanish or embargo days, and the Baratarians were no longer esteemed a public necessity. Scattered, used, and pardoned, they passed into eclipse-not total, but fatally dark where they most desired to shine. The ill-founded tradition that the Lafittes were never seen after the battle of New Orleans had thus a figurative reality. … Read more

The Price of Half Convictions

The next move on the part of all concerned was to hurry forward messengers, with declarations, to the courts of France and Spain. The colonists sent theirs, Aubry and Ulloa, each, his; and Foucault, his a paper characterized by a shameless double-dealing which leaves the intendant-commissary alone, of all the participants in these events, an infamous memory. The memorial of the people was an absurd confusion of truth and misstatement. It made admissions fatal to its pleadings. It made arrogant announcements of unapplied principles. It enumerated real wrongs, for which France and Spain, but not Ulloa, were to blame. And … Read more

Count O’Reilly and Spanish Law

“Cruel O’Reilly,” (From a miniature in possession of Hon, Charles Gayarre, of Louisiana.) One morning toward the end of July 1769, the people of New Orleans were brought suddenly to their feet by the news that the Spaniards were at the mouth of the river in overwhelming force. There was no longer any room to postpone choice of action. Marquis, the Swiss captain, with a white cockade in his hat (he had been the leading advocate for a republic), and Petit, with a pistol in either hand, came out upon the ragged, sunburnt grass of the Place d’Armes and called … Read more

French Founders

Let us give a final glance at the map. It is the general belief that a line of elevated land, now some eighty or ninety miles due north of the Louisiana coast, is the prehistoric shore of the Gulf. A range of high, abrupt hills or bluffs, which the Mississippi first encounters at the city of Vicksburg, and whose southwestward and then southward trend it follows thereafter to the town of Baton Rouge, swerves, just below this point, rapidly to a due east course, and declines gradually until, some thirty miles short of the eastern boundary of Louisiana, it sinks … Read more

Spanish Conciliation

Crozat-Law-Louis XV. Charles III. Who ever at one time or another was the transatlantic master of Louisiana managed its affairs on the same bad principle: To none of them had a colony any inherent rights. They entered into possession as cattle are let into a pasture or break into a field. It was simply a commercial venture projected in the interests of the sovereign’s or monopolist’s revenues, and restrictions were laid or indulgences bestowed upon it merely as those interests seemed to require. And so the Mississippi Delta, until better ideas could prevail, could not show other than a gaunt, … Read more

The American Revolution On The Gulf Side

Now, at length, the Creole and the Anglo-American were to come into active relation which, from that day to the present, has qualified every public question in Louisiana. At a happy moment the governorship of Unzaga, a man advanced in life, of impaired vision and failing health, who was begging to be put on the retired list, gave place to the virile administration of one of the most brilliant characters to be seen in the history of the Southwestern United States. Galvez was the son of the Viceroy of Mexico and nephew of the Spanish secretary of state, who was … Read more

The Creoles’ City

Scarcely had the low, clay chimneys of a few woodsmen’s cabins sent up, through a single change of seasons, their lonely smoke-wreaths among the silent willow jungles of the Mississippi, when Bienville began boldly to advocate the removal of the capital to this so-called ” New Orleans.” But, even while lie spoke, the place suffered a total inundation. Yet lie continued to hold it as a trading post of the Mississippi Company, and, by the close of 1720, began again, in colonial council, to urge it as the proper place for the seat of government; and though out-voted, lie sent … Read more

Spanish New Orleans

In that city you may go and stand to-day on the spot still as antique and quaint as the Creole mind and heart which cherish it, where gathered in 1765 the motley throng of townsmen and planters whose bold repudiation of their barter to the King of Spain we have just reviewed; where in 1768 Lafrénière harangued them, and they, few in number and straitened in purse but not in daring, rallied in arms against Spain’s indolent show of authority and drove it into the Gulf. They were the first people in America to make open war distinctly for the … Read more

African Slaves and Indian Wars

The problem of civilization in Louisiana was early complicated by the presence and mutual contact of three races of men. The Mississippi Company’s agricultural colonial scheme was based on the West Indian idea of African slave labor. Already the total number of blacks had risen to equal that of the whites, and within the Delta, outside of New Orleans, they must have largely preponderated. In 1727 this idea began to be put into effect just without the town’s upper boundary, where the Jesuit fathers accommodated themselves to it in model form, and between 1726 and 1745 gradually acquired and put … Read more

The New Generation

When, on the 10th of May 1743, the Marquis de Vaudreuil landed in New Orleans, private enterprise-the true foundation of material prosperity-was firmly established. Indigo, rice, and tobacco were moving in quantity to Europe, and lumber to the West Indies. Ships that went out loaded carne back loaded again, especially from St. Domingo; and traffic with the Indians, and with the growing white population along the immense length of the Mississippi and its tributaries, was bringing money into the town and multiplying business year by year. Hope ran high when the Marquis was appointed. His family had much influence at … Read more

The First Creoles

What is a Creole ? Even in Louisiana the question would be variously answered. The title did not here first belong to the descendants of Spanish, but of French settlers. But such a meaning implied a certain excellence of origin, and so came early to include any native, of French or Spanish descent by either parent, whose non-alliance with the slave race entitled him to social rank. Later, the term was adopted by-not conceded to the natives of mixed blood, and is still so used among themselves. At length the spirit of commerce saw the money value of so honored … Read more

Praying to the King

A single paragraph in recapitulation. In 1699, France, by the hand of her gallant sailor, D’Iberville, founded the province of Louisiana. In 1718, his brother, Bienville, laid out the little parallelogram of streets and ditches, and palisaded lots which formed New Orleans. Here, amid the willow-jungles of the Mississippi’s low banks, under the glaring sunshine of bayou clearings, in the dark shadows of the Delta’s wet forests, the Louisiana Creoles came into existence valorous, unlettered, and unrestrained, as military outpost life in such a land might make them. In sentiment they were loyal to their king; in principle, to themselves … Read more

Ulloa, Aubry, and the Superior Council

The cession had now only to go into effect. It seemed to the Louisianians a sentence of commercial and industrial annihilation, and it was this belief, not loyalty to France, that furnished the true motive of the Creoles and justification of the struggle of 1768. The merchants were, therefore, its mainspring. But merchants are not apt to be public leaders. They were behind and under the people. Who, then, or what, was in front? An official body whose growth and power in the colony had had great influence in forming the public character of the Creoles -the Superior Council. It … Read more

1758, February 20, Letter to His Excellency

Sir Your Dispatches of the 18th and 30th tell I received the 18th Just –f. James Holmes, The lak Affair of Sam Binn is Intirely forgot, and the Indians all satisfy’d, As to the Tellico People Jean Denture to Afsure you Excellency that they are Entirely Reformed, and behave Ex treamly well, and (Thank God) we at present live in Great Harmony, and Friendship with all the Nation. On the 15th selt arrived at this Fort the Little Carpenter, and the Great Warriour of Chotta, with their Party, they brought with them, two French men, and the Twighvee Indian woman … Read more

1758, November 27, Fort Loudoun

Sir this is to acquaint, your Excellency that the 25 jnstant two Runners came to latt me know that the great Warriour and judge Friend, (who had been to war Some time ago towards the French Fort) were at a Day’s Journey from the Fort; Accordingly yesterday, judge Friend with his Gang Came, and told me that the great Warrior and him, with the rest would wait on me, which they did, j recived them with the Honour that they expect on Such Occasion, j gave them an Entertainment, and the two warriors dined with me, they brought three Scalps, … Read more

1759, January 1, Fort Loudoun

Sir J have recived your Excellency’s Dispatche of the 15 December Sic Days before j recived from Lieut. Outerbriege a Copy of Mr. Duvalt’s Letters, and in the Same time, two of your Letters, one Octr. 27th, the other Novr. 18th immediately j sent to Old Hop to acquaint him that j had Letters to Communicate to him the next Day. Accordingly j went, and found him in the Town House, with many jndians. J thanck’d him in your Name for all the goods Talks that he had given from timt to time and hoped he would percerer in his … Read more

1758, March 2, Fort Loudoun

Sir Your Dispatch I received the 28th ultimate and immediately ordered Willm. Woodwareth to get himSelf ready. I am very Glad that the Earl of Loudoun has granted us Provisions, and would to God, it had be so before I come to this Place, it would have saved me great deal of trouble & uneaSiness. You acquaint me, Sir, that Mr. Stead is to Supply the Fort with ProviSions, I wiSh he may Send Send Some Body as soom as possible to Settle with with my store Keeper, and Send Some Meat Kind, for there is none to be got … Read more

1757, August 4, Letter to Cherokee Nation

Edmon Pittkins Esq. His Britainioh Majesty King George’s Agent for and Superintendent of the Affairs of his faithfull Allies the Severall Nations of Indians fr_habiting the frontiers of his colonife of Original, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and Georgia and their Confererates To Conicoughly Governour of the whole Nation of Cherokee Indians. Brother, King George the father of all the white people L____ on thir Side the Great Water, hath talen it into Consideration that the Governour’s of his severall Colonies have Enough to do to mind wile the Affairs of the White people; and cannot go to Visit the … Read more

1757, October 11, Letter #2

Sir On the 13th September arrived at his House Judge Friend very Sick from Virginia, he has brought some Horses Loaded with presents, and a White Man to wait on him, the next Day at his own Request I went to see him, as he Lives but Little Distance from the Fort. he told me he was very glad to see me, and if he had been well, he would have sav’d me the Trouble, but as soon as he should find himself better, he would come to have a talk with me, and would Inquire of the Conduct of … Read more